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Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.

Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.

A 19th century map of mainland Southeast Asia, showing the ancient kingdoms of the Birman Empire (roughly modern Myanmar), Malaya (Malaysia), Siam (Thailand), Cochin China and Tonquin (Vietnam), and the Anamese Empire (Cambodia and Laos).

Map of Assam, including India’s border with northwest Birma (Myanmar) where indigenous lands/peoples are marked (Singphos, Naga, Kasi-Schan, Thai-Lung) e.g. ‘These mountainous landscapes are inhabited by the Naga tribes [translation from map text]’.

Map of Assam, including India’s border with northwest Birma (Myanmar) where indigenous lands/peoples are marked (Singphos, Naga, Kasi-Schan, Thai-Lung) e.g. ‘These mountainous landscapes are inhabited by the Naga tribes [translation from map text]’.

Coloured borders are used on this map to divide mainland Southeast Asia into empires and kingdoms. Mountains, rivers and major settlements are shown in land, with islands, shoals and reefs marked in the South China Sea.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

A navigation map of the Java Sea and Sunda Islands, with bathymetry (sea depth), maritime routes, shoals and reefs, and elevations (side views of terrestrial landmarks). Inset maps feature the bay at Batavia and the straits between the Sunda Islands.

A navigation map of the Java Sea and Sunda Islands, with bathymetry (sea depth), maritime routes, shoals and reefs, and elevations (side views of terrestrial landmarks). Inset maps feature the bay at Batavia and the straits between the Sunda Islands.

Navigation map of the northern South China Sea, with bathymetry (sea depth), islands, shoals and reefs. There are five maritime routes to Canton and one to Manilla marked, and inset maps of the Gulf of Tonkin and bays and islands in the Philippines.

Navigation map of the northern South China Sea, with bathymetry (sea depth), islands, shoals and reefs. There are five maritime routes to Canton and one to Manilla marked, and inset maps of the Gulf of Tonkin and bays and islands in the Philippines.