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This 18th century map of Southeast Asia by the French cartographer Gilles Robert de Vaugondy features the national borders of the Philippines in green, and of modern Indonesia in yellow. The Malay Peninsula and modern Cambodia and Vietnam are in red.

A map of a small island chain off the west coast of the island of Gilolo (modern Halmahera in the Maluku Islands of Indonesia). The military forts on the islands were used by the European colonial powers during conflicts over the area’s spice trade.

From the second edition (1749) of ‘Atlas Portatif Universel et Militaire’ by the French cartographer Gilles Robert de Vaugondy (1688–1766), this map features the Philippines (in blue) and Maluku Islands (in red).

The southern coasts of Sumbawa (‘Coinbava’) and Sumba (‘Sandet’), and most of the coast of New Guinea (‘Nouvelle Guinée’) are represented by a dotted line on this mid-18th century map, indicating that the exact coastlines were unknown at this time.

This map of the islands between Borneo and New Guinea features inset maps of the important spice trading islands (‘Spice Islands’): ‘Les Isles Molucques’ (Maluku Islands) and ‘Isles de Banda’ (Banda Islands).

French text on the right of this map notes that the ‘Molucques’—an important region for the spice trade—were near the island of Gilolo (modern Halmahera) and names them as Ternate, Tindor (Tidore), Mutir (Moti), Machiam (Makian) and Bachian (Bacan).

Unusually, north is located to the right of this early 17th century map of the Maluku Islands, rather than the top. The scale is shown on a stone monument. French text on the reverse describes Java.