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Dutch map of the East Indies, with mountain ranges represented by simple hachure marks, and just a few rivers marked. Mainland Southeast Asia is labelled ‘Achter Indie [Beyond India]’.

Dutch map of the East Indies, with mountain ranges represented by simple hachure marks, and just a few rivers marked. Mainland Southeast Asia is labelled ‘Achter Indie [Beyond India]’.

Map of Asia, marked with populations of cities and lengths of rivers. Mainland Southeast Asia is divided into kingdoms, but maritime Southeast Asia is mostly blank, and parts such as Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands are left off entirely.

Map of Asia, marked with populations of cities and lengths of rivers. Mainland Southeast Asia is divided into kingdoms, but maritime Southeast Asia is mostly blank, and parts such as Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands are left off entirely.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

Map focusing on the passages between the islands of maritime Southeast Asia used to travel between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Includes the Strait of Malacca, many straits between the Sunda Islands, and a route through the Maluku Islands.

Map focusing on the passages between the islands of maritime Southeast Asia used to travel between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Includes the Strait of Malacca, many straits between the Sunda Islands, and a route through the Maluku Islands.

This map of Asia, from an atlas by the German cartographer Karl von Spruner, is colour-coded to show the colonial possessions of the European powers—Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, France, Britain and Denmark—at the end of the 17th century.

Longitude is indicated in two different ways on this mid-18th century map: along the top border, it is shown in degrees (number of degrees east of London); more unusually, along the bottom border, it is shown in time (number of hours east of London).

A late 18th century map of Asia with regions divided by colour-coded borders, and detailing rivers, mountains, reefs and shoals.

A late 18th century map of Asia published in London by John Bowles, with regions indicated by colour. Central Borneo is labelled ‘Part inhabited by the Biayos’, which is seen on many contemporary maps, often with the comment ‘a savage people’.