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On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: British, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Danish.

Map of Southeast Asia highlighting European colonial possessions. Unusually, the south coast of the Philippine island of Mindanao is shown twice, reflecting uncertainty about its true location. Names of indigenous peoples are listed on Borneo.

This map of Asia is from the earliest version of ‘Stielers Handatlas’ by the German cartographers Adolf Stieler and Christian Gottlieb Reichard. The maps were initially published separately; later editions compiled them into book form.

This map of Asia is from the earliest version of ‘Stielers Handatlas’ by the German cartographers Adolf Stieler and Christian Gottlieb Reichard. The maps were initially published separately; later editions compiled them into book form.

On this map of Asia, India and mainland Southeast Asia are labelled together as ‘Ost Indien [East Indies]’. In maritime Southeast Asia, the Sunda Islands are coloured yellow, the Maluku Islands and New Guinea are blue, and the Philippines are red.

On this map of Asia, India and mainland Southeast Asia are labelled together as ‘Ost Indien [East Indies]’. In maritime Southeast Asia, the Sunda Islands are coloured yellow, the Maluku Islands and New Guinea are blue, and the Philippines are red.

Map of the Birman Empire, with hand-drawn internal borders in red. Many of the names of regions, settlements and rivers are labelled with two names, one local and one Western: e.g. ‘Yoodra Shan oder Cambodia’ (‘oder’ is German for ‘or’).

Map of the Birman Empire, with hand-drawn internal borders in red. Many of the names of regions, settlements and rivers are labelled with two names, one local and one Western: e.g. ‘Yoodra Shan oder Cambodia’ (‘oder’ is German for ‘or’).

Map of Asia, with mainland Southeast Asia in red and divided into ancient kingdoms, Sunda Islands in yellow, and the Philippines in grey. Twelve different scales are shown, as different countries used different measurement systems.

On this map of Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: e.g. at this time, Benkulen (Bencoolen) on the west coast of Sumatra is British, and Malacca is Dutch.

Map of Asia, with mainland Southeast Asia in red and divided into ancient kingdoms, Sunda Islands in yellow, and the Philippines in grey. Twelve different scales are shown, as different countries used different measurement systems.

On this map of Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: e.g. at this time, Benkulen (Bencoolen) on the west coast of Sumatra is British, and Malacca is Dutch.